The Ptolemaic-Aristotelian View of the Universe, Leonhard Euler, and The Enlightenment

"What was the Ptolemaic-Aristotelian view of the universe, and how did Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton undermine it and institute an alternative?"




The Ptolemaic-Aristotelian view of the universe was that of a geocentric model. The Earth as the center of the universe. Orbits as circles and perfectly rounded planets, as well as stars, were also included in this peculiar idea. This, of course, was not an accurate viewpoint so it was eventually challenged, as so many theories are at one point in time or another.

Some that challenged this way of thinking were the great minds of Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton.

Copernicus argued that the sun was the center of the universe. Therefore we see a heliocentric model. He likewise perceived that the Earth rotates on its axis. Common knowledge today, but revolutionary in his time.

Kepler undermined the idea of a Ptolemaic-Aristotelian view by proposing the theory of elliptical orbits instead of the standard idea that the orbits went around in circles. Again, this was revolutionary.

Galileo likewise contributed to this revolutionary process through his observation of moons orbiting Jupiter. This was proof that not everything revolved around the Earth as was previously thought.

I will lastly mention the monumental discoveries of Newton. Newton's ideas of gravity were extraordinary! Newton believed that gravity was the force that kept things moving and kept the air from escaping. He also predicted a transit of Venus. He was, in fact, the first astronomer to successfully do this.

The ideas throughout the centuries have been vast, but far fewer have been true. Copernicus and the others mentioned today knew that they must prove and disprove the world's theories. How few have realized this? There is little to be said for ignorance, but in knowledge there is power.



"Explain the significance of the person you read about for Lesson 48 in 100 words."


In lesson 48 I read about a mathematician/physicist, Leonhard Euler. Euler was known for his discoveries in many areas of study such as fluid dynamics, graph theory, music theory, mathematical function, etc. All of these areas are influential and greatly important, but I took a particular interest in his idea of mathematical function. The idea of numbers and mathematical problems as real life things was greatly fascinating to me.

Leonhard Euler was a mathematician/physicist. He was born in 1707, and he died in 1783. His historical significance was that of stamping a perfectly mathematical footprint on the field of science.



"Describe the main ideas we associate with the Enlightenment."



When you hear the word enlightenment, what is it that you think of? Maybe you think of people coming to great conclusions, philosophical thought, and reason. The idea of reason is one of the key characteristics that is often associated with the Enlightenment. Unfortunately, though, it was, at times, disregarded. For example, during this time people tended to be skeptical of using reason to come to theological points. Then again, they were skeptical of most anything during the course of the Enlightenment.

They weren't particularly fond of accepting age-old inherited ideas either. People of this time had the thought that they should rather look to science for their founding principles of most anything. The people of the Enlightenment did have an agreement for the most part with the idea of religious toleration, though. Yet, they tended to favor the stripping of "ritual" practices from religion.

These ideas laid the foundation of the Enlightenment. And in the Enlightenment, learners of history have found even more to diligently study. I hope that you have enjoyed this personal study of this age. Thanks for reading!

Arthropods and Their Potential Economic Benefits

"Could a deeper understanding of arthropods lead to tangible economic benefits?"



Arthropods make up an extremely diverse range of life, and because of this, there are more potential benefits.   A deeper understanding of these creatures could certainly lead to "tangible economic benefits" in my personal opinion.

a caterpillar

I would like to use both the butterfly and moth as an example.  These arthropod's larval stage (the caterpillar) happens to be quite harmful to gardens.  If we were to do more research on the caterpillar, we would likely be able to find better ways of deterring this "pest" from our plants.  In deterring them, we would be able to produce a better harvest.

I think that I will also use the crab as an example.  Everyday we feast on crab legs, and restaurants as well as fishermen make their incomes in part because of this animal.  What if we were to conduct research on the crab that would help us to better locate them.  Perhaps we could develop a kind of "crab sonar" which would make it easier for fishermen to find large numbers of crabs.  If we could figure out exactly where the largest crab populations are, then we would be able to better fish for them, as well as protect them from over-fishing.

Just think of all the opportunities that the research of arthropods could create in the next 5-10 years!  I have no doubt that we will be making several discoveries that could aid us economically because of our research.

Thanks for reading, and please let me know what you think!

How do Fungi and Animals "Eat"?

"Compare and contrast the ways that fungi 'eat' with the ways that animals digest, and absorb their food."


The ways that fungi and animals eat have many similarities and differences that make this an interesting topic.  I would like to start it off with a non-similarity though, which is that animals have a stomach and intestines inside the body which certainly aid in digestion.  Fungi rather do not have these assets.  They actually digest food outside the cell wall since they don't have the luxury of a stomach.

Mushrooms growing on a log

Now I'm going to mention a similarity that is quite intriguing, which is how even though animals and fungi are extremely different, they still share this ability to digest their food sources.  I find it weird (but kind of cool) that fungi and animals share this trait even though their body structures are so different!

Even the way that that they absorb food is somewhat similar!  What I mean by this is that fungi and animals are both heterotrophic (they can't make their own food through photosynthesis), so they have to absorb there own food from their surroundings.  They both break down the matter using digestive enzymes, and absorb the nutrients.  

These are the fascinating similarities and differences that I have found between these two classifications.

Thanks for reading, and please let me know what you think!     

The Immigration of Hawks Into a Different Community

     In a community that has the five trophic levels of plants, crickets, mice, snakes, and hawks, the immigration of even more hawks would definitely cause some big changes!  One likely outcome would be that the hawks would begin feeding off of the mice and snakes.  Both the mice and snake population would therefore decrease, and the plant and cricket population would spike because of the small number of their predators.
   
     Another possibility is that the mice population is filled with disease at the time that the hawks begin feeding on them.  This results in the disease's spreading to the newly introduced hawk population.  The hawk population would then begin to rapidly decrease due to the massive amount of hawk deaths in the community.  The other species of plants and animals would now start to multiply due to the decrease in the numbers of hawks and mice.

     Thank you so much for reading, and please let me know what you think!

Biotechnology and DNA

                                                Biotechnology

     In this section of my essay I will be talking about my thoughts and questions pertaining to biotechnology.  

     Biotechnology has always been a part of our lives in one way or another.  Cheese making, beer brewing, and antibiotics are all examples of things where biotechnology is used.   

     To make you a little more familiar with this extremely useful tool in life, I will give you the definition of biotechnology.

"1. the exploitation of biological processes for industrial and other purposes, esp. the genetic manipulation of microorganisms for the production of antibiotics, hormones, etc."

     For the moment I will talk a bit about it's role in food making.  

  

    In about 6000 BCE the Sumerians and Babylonians would use yeast in order to make beer, in 1300 CE the Aztecs discovered that the algae in lakes could be a potential food source, in 1852 cross-fertilization is discovered in corn, and in 2000 Australia created its first cloned cows.  

     Of course there were other discoveries but I am only going to list these ones right now.  

     If we have been using biotechnology for this long and it took so many years to discover cross-fertilization in corn of all things; how long will it take to make some of the far more advanced discoveries?  That is one question that I ask myself when learning about biotechnology.

                                 DNA

     Am I the only one who has wondered if perhaps one day we will be able to bring the dinosaurs into existence again or create a real superhero?  I guess that this is something that I have always been fascinated with.  It probably sprouts from my love of science fiction.  Star Trek, Spider Man, The Avengers, etc., are most likely the culprits.  

     Since Friedrich Miescher discovered DNA in 1869, and Watson and Cricks' discovery of the double-helix stucture in 1953, we have made many advances in the way that we use DNA.  From using it to find criminals, the making of insulin, and finding a specific person in mass-war graves, DNA is becoming more and more useful!   

   
     It really does make you think about the possibility that science, using DNA, could actually turn some science fiction tales into a reality.  

     I wonder how far away these discoveries in DNA are?  If they are ever made, I wonder how they will be used?  

     Perhaps they would be used purely for scientific purposes, but most likely they wouldn't be.  Seriously, let's just think about this for a minute.  If these discoveries were made, how would governments try to use them?  They have created atomic bombs, machine guns, fighter jets, etc., using the discoveries that have been made in science.  What would happen if real super heroes were created using DNA?  What would happen if human cloning was made successful and legal?  Would the government perhaps try and use these things to their advantage?  Of course they would!  They would be stupid not to.  

     The idea of these things happening is quite frightening to me, but then again, I don't think that we will have to worry about this for quite a long time.  I mean, we cloned Dolly, (the first cloned sheep from an adult somatic cell) in only 1996. 

I hope that you have enjoyed this essay, and please let me know what you think!       

The Peloponnesian War and Pericles' Funeral Oration

"What points is Pericles trying to make about Athens in his Funeral Oration?"


     Pericles was trying to get across how wonderful Athens was, praise the people, and honor the dead at the same time. 
     
     He talked about all the advantages that Athenian citizens had, he tried to motivate the living during a time of war, and as stated earlier, honor the dead.  
     
     He wanted to help the people to keep going by telling them about what they had to live up to (The dead soldiers).  He also tried to give them a reason(s)to keep fighting by telling them about all that they had to lose.  He told them about all of the amazing advantages that Athens had to offer like its freedom in government and ordinary life.  

     These were the points that Pericles was trying to make in his Funeral Oration.


"Why was the Peloponnesian War fought?  What was its long-term significance?"


     The Peloponnesian War was fought for these reasons.

1.  Athens appeared to be using the Delian League's ship-building funds to help beautify itself instead of to build ships for the protection of those in the Delian League.
2.  Sparta was afraid that Athens was becoming too powerful.

     Here is the war's long-term significance.

1.  Athens would lose its dominance of the other members of the Delian League.
2.  Sparta would take control of things.
3.  In the end, this war between the Greeks would ultimately weaken them and spell out some serious consequences.

     Well, That's all for this week. I hope that you have enjoyed this essay on "The Peloponnesian War and Pericles' Funeral Oration". See you next Friday, and please let me know what you think! 

     

Aristotle and Sparta

           "Why was Aristotle a significant figure?"

     Well...This is a tricky subject.  I mean, what makes anyone a significant person in history?  The person was born, raised, the person had a brain, a heart, and I'm sure that they had a favorite food, but obviously these facts aren't what makes a person significant.  Considering all of the people in the world it's a strange wonder how anyone makes it to the top. 

     Alright,so let's just try and figure out what the significant figures all have in common. They all have that strange, magical, mystifying, and very rare ability to pull people in to what they are saying.  There could be the person who is the key to every question that the human race have ever asked living on this planet right now and we wouldn't even know who that person was if he had no means of telling us.  If he didn't have the talent or resources to tell us, then how would he?  Well, he wouldn't because he couldn't. That's it then, we have found the reason that Aristotle was significant!  No no no, remove that ridiculous idea from your mind!  We still have quite a ways to go in figuring out why this man was significant.  What is another thing that all significant people have in common?  That's right, all significant people have a message that they think is important to the world that they would like to share.  Do we have the answer yet?  No, I'm afraid not.  We know that he had some way of drawing attention to himself and that he had a message to give, but what was that message and why was it important? Then and only then, will we know what was so significant about Aristotle.  
     (Caution!  You are now entering into a different time in history!  You may experience the feeling that only comes from the sheer perfection of learning about the past.)  
     "Excuse me, but you seem to be a little lost.  Is there anything that I can help you with?"  The stranger looks at you calmly and sincerely.  "Yes, indeed you can.  I am looking for Aristotle the philosopher.  Do you know where I can find him?" "Surely, I believe that he is with young Alexander right about now."  You give the stranger a nod of gratitude and hurry down the road till you find the place where the future Alexander the Great and the philosopher Aristotle were studying.  "Excuse me sirs, but I am in need of both your assistance.  You see, I need to know what makes Aristotle here a significant figure!  I have searched high and low but I cannot seem to find the answer.  I thought that if I spoke to you directly, then I might understand it more clearly."  Aristotle and young Alexander look at you in amazement.  "I do not know what makes you think that you can just barge into the lesson I am teaching, but because you seem so genuinely confused, you are welcome to sit in and listen to what I have to say for the time being.  You thank the man for allowing you this great honor and sit quietly while him and Alexander go through that day's lesson.  
     Through sitting here, you learn many things about this person that you have only read and heard about through your life.  You learn that he thought that we should not simply ignore the world in which we live, but rather, we should study it.  You hear him talk about his findings in science as well as his moral beliefs.  You come to see that he is a very logical person and it is no wonder to you now why he was so significant in history.  
     When the lesson is finished, you thank the two and go back to your world.  When you arrive you quickly write down your findings on why this man was so significant.  Here is what you wrote.  "Aristotle was a man with a mind of his own.  He did not just accept the findings of others to be true.  He wanted to know for himself.  This was what made him a philosopher.  He was not simply a philosopher though, he was a philosopher who wanted to know many things.  He thought about science, politics, logic, etc.  He made us use our minds.  His ideas intrigued us,  He made us think logically through questions that we have asked ourselves, and he tried his very best to leave us with some idea of our world.  He was "the philosopher."  This is why he was and still is, a significant figure.  
  


                                  "What was Spartan society like?"
     Spartan society was a very strange place to say the least.  Once Sparta had conquered Messenia, they enslaved the conquered people.  It turned out that the slaves or helots as they called them, ended up greatly outnumbering Sparta.  Because they were afraid of a helot revolt, they decided to turn Sparta into a military state.
     They took the Spartan boys at age 7 and forced them to commit horrible acts, eat only a small amount of food, took away their shoes, and they only gave them one cloak.  The boys would be in the military training for 13 years.  Once they reached the age of twenty, the boys would join into the citizen army and be allowed to marry.
     The girls were not taken from home but did have to participate in sports such as running.   This was so that they would be fit bearers of children.
     Finally, after all of that time away from home, at age 30, the Spartan men could go back to their families! Even though they were allowed to live at home, they still had to eat at a public mess hall.
     Now I will tell you about the government of Sparta.  Sparta had two kings, a council of elders, an executive board of five ephors, and an assembly of citizens which consisted of every Spartan male who was over the age of 30.
     Well, now you know a little bit about Sparta.  Shout it from the roof tops, tell it to all of your friends, send out Sparta information packets in the mail!  (Please don't actually do that.)
  I hope that you have enjoyed this essay, and please let me know what you think!